[Note:  I’ve divided this lengthy article into three parts to make the file sizes a bit more manageable. This is the first part]  

THE

HORSE*.

 

            THE reduction of the horse to a domestic state is the greatest acquisition, from the animal world, ever made by the art and industry of man.  This noble animal partakes of the fatigues of war, and seems to feel the glory of victory.  Equally intrepid as his master, he encounters danger and death with ardour and magnanimity.  He delights in the noise and tumult of arms, and annoys the enemy with resolution and alacrity.  But it is not in perils and conflicts alone that the horse willingly co-operates with his master; he likewise participates of human pleasures.  He exults in the chace [sic] and the tournament; his eyes sparkle with emulation in the course.  But, though bold and intrepid, he suffer not himself to be carried off by a furious ardour; he represses his movements, and knows how to overn and check the natu- [306] ral vivacity and fire of his temper.  He not only yields to the hand, but seems to consult the inclination of the rider.  Uniformly obedient to the impressions he receives, he flies or stops, and regulates his motions entirely by the will of his master.  He, in some measure, renounces his very existence to the pleasure of man.  He delivers up his whole powers; he reserves nothing, and often dies rather than disobey the mandates of his governour.

 

            These are features in the character of the horse whose natural qualities have been matured by art, and tamed with care to the service of man.  His education commences with the loss of liberty, and is completed by restraint.  The slavery of the horse is so antient and so universal, that he is rarely seen in a natural state.  When employed in labour, he is always covered with the harness; and, even during the time destined for repose, he is never entirely delivered from bonds.  If sometimes permitted to roam in the pastures, he always bears the marks of servitude, and often the external impressions of labour and pain. His mouth is deformed by the perpetual friction of the bit; he sides are galled with wounds, or furrowed with cicatrices; and his hoofs are pierced with nails.  The natural gestures of his body are constrained by the habitual pressure of fetters, from which it would be in vain to deliver him; for he would not be more at liberty.  Those horses, the servitude of which is most [307] mild, which are kept solely for the purposes of luxury and magnificence, and whose golden chains only gratify the vanity of their masters, are more dishonoured by the elegance of their trappings, and by the plaits of their hair, than by the iron shoes on their feet.

 

            Art is always excelled by nature; and, in animated beings, liberty of movement constitutes the perfection of their existence.  Examine those horses which have multiplied so prodigiously in Spanish America, and live in perfect freedom.  Their motions are neither constrained nor measured.  Proud of their independence, they fly from the presence of man, and disdain all his care. They search for, and procure the food that is most salutary and agreeable.  They wander and frisk about in immense meadows, and collect the fresh productions of a perpetual spring. Without any fixed habitation, or other shelter than a serene sky, they breathe a purer air than in those musty vaults in which we confine them, when subjected to our dominion.  Hence wild horses are stronger, lighter, and more nervous than most of those which are in a domestic state.  The former possess force and dignity, which are the gifts of nature; the latter have only address and gracefulness, which are all that art can bestow.

 

            These wild horses are by no means ferocious in their temper; they are only wild and fiery.  Though of strength superior to most ani- [308] mals, they never make an attack.  But, when they are assaulted, they either disdain the enemy, frisk out of his way, or strike him dead with their heels.  They associate in troops from no other motive than the pleasure of being together; for they have no fear; but acquire a mutual attachment to each other.  As grass and vegetables constitute their food, of which they have enough to satisfy their appetite, and, as they are not carnivorous, they neither make war with other animals, nor among themselves.  They dispute not about their common nourishment, and never have occasion to snatch prey from each other, the general source of quarrels and combats among the rapacious tribes.  Hence they live in perpetual peace; because their appetites are simple and moderate, and they have no objects to excite envy.

 

            All these features are apparent in young horses, bred together in troops.  Their manners are gentle, and their tempers social; their force and ardour are generally rendered conspicuous by marks of emulation.  They anxiously press to be foremost in the course, to brave danger in traversing a river, or in leaping a ditch or precipice; and, it has been remarked, that those which are most adventurous and expert in these natural exercises, are the most generous, mild, and tractable, when reduced to a domestic state.

 

            Wild horses are mentioned by several antient authors.  Herodotus takes notice of white sa- [309] vage horses on the banks of the Hypanis in Scythia; and, in the northern part of Thrace; beyond the Danube, he remarks, there were wild horses, covered all over with hair, five inches long.  Aristotle says, they were to be found in Syria; Pliny, in the northern regions; and Strabo, in Spain and the Alps.  Among the moderns, Cardan says the same thing of Scotland, and the Orkney isles;* Olaus, of Muscovy; Dapper, of the island of Cyprus, where he says, there were beautiful wild horses, of great strength and swiftness;+ and Strys, of the island of May, one of the Cape de Verds, where he saw wild horses of a small stature.3  Leo of Africa likewise relates, that there were wild horses in the deserts of Africa and Arabia; and he assures us, that he saw, in the solitudes of Numidia, a colt with white hair, and a crisped mane.4  Marmol confirms this fact, by informing us, that small wild horses some of them of an ash-colour, and others white, with short curled hair and manes, are to be found in the Lybian and Arabian deserts:5  He adds, that they out-run the dogs and domestic horses.  We likewise learn, from the Lettres Edifiantes,6 that there were small wild horses in China.  [310]

 

            But, as Europe is now almost equally peopled, wild horses are no where to be found in this quarter of the globe.  Those in America are the offspring of domestic horses, transported originally from Europe by the Spaniards.  In these uninhabited, or rather depopulated regions, horses have multiplied prodigiously.  That this species of animal was unknown in the New World, appears from the terror and astonishment expressed by the Mexicans and Peruvians at the sight of horses and their riders.  The Spaniards carried great numbers of horses to these regions, both with a view to their service, and to the propagation of the breed.  Many were, accordingly, left on the islands, as well as on the Continent, where they have multiplied like other wild animals.  M. le Salle,* in the year 1685, saw, near the bay of St Louis, in North America, these horses grazing in the meadows; and they were so wild that he could not approach them.  The author of the history of the Bucaniers [sic]+ remarks, “That troops of horses, to the number of 500, are sometimes seen in the island of St Domingo, who all run together; that, when they perceive a man, they all stop; and that one of them approaches to a certain distance, blows through his nostrils, takes flight, and is instantly followed by the [311] whole troop.”  He adds, that he is uncertain whether these horses have degenerated by becoming wild; but that he found none of them so handsome as those of Spain, though they sprung from the same race.  “They have,” he continues, “very gross heads and limbs, and long necks and ears.  The inhabitants tame them with ease, and then train them to labour. In taking them, gins of ropes are laid in the places where they frequent.  When caught by; the neck, the soon strangle themselves, unless some person arrives to disentangle them.  They are tied to trees by the body and limbs, where they are left for two days without victuals or drink.  This trial is generally sufficient for rendering them more tractable, and they soon become as gentle as if they had never been wild; and, even if they should by accident regain their liberty, they never resume their savage state, but know their masters, and allow themselves to be approached, and retaken with ease.”*  [312]

 

            These facts prove horses to be naturally of gentle dispositions, and much disposed to associate with man. They never forsake the abodes of men, to regain their liberty in the forests.  They discover, on the contrary, great anxiety to return to the stable, where they find only coarse food, which is always the same, and often measured to them more by the rules of oeconomy, than by the strength of appetite.  But the sweets of habit supply all they have lost by slavery. After being oppressed with fatigue, the place of repose is full of delight.  They smell it at a distance, can distinguish it in the midst of great cities, and seem uniformly to prefer bondage to liberty.  They form a second nature out of those habits to which they have been forced to submit; for horses, after being abandoned in the forests, have been known to neigh continually, in order to be heard, to run to the voice of man, and even to grow meagre, and die in a short time, though surrounded with a profusion of nourishment.

 

            Thus, it is obvious, the manners of a horse originate entirely from his education, which is accomplished by a care and industry bestowed by man upon no other animal; but he is amply rewarded by the perpetual services of this noble and laborious creature.  [313]

 

            The foals are separated from their mothers at the age of fix, six, or at most seven months; for experience shows, that, when allowed to suck ten or eleven months, though generally fatter and larger, they are not of equal value as those which have been more early weaned.  After six or seven months, the foals are removed from their mothers, and are fed twice a-day with bran and a little hay, the quantity of which is augmented in proportion as they advance in age.  They are confined to the stables as long as they discover any anxiety to return to their mothers.  But when this inquietude is gone, they are allowed to go out, and are conducted to the pasture:  They must not, however, be permitted to graze when their stomach is empty.  An hour before being put to the grass, they should have a little bran, be made to drink, and should never be exposed to great colds or to rain.  In this manner they pass the first winter.  In the month of May following, they may be allowed to pasture freely every day, and to remain out continually till the end of October, only observing not to permit them to eat the aftermaths.  If accustomed to feed upon this delicate herbage, they will reject hay, which ought nevertheless, together with bran, to be their principal food during the second winter.  They are managed in the same manner, namely, allowing them to pasture in winter during the day, and in summer during both day and night [314] till they arrive at the age of four years, when they are confined to dry food.*  This change of nourishment requires some precautions.  During the first eight days, they should have only straw; and a few vermifuge [sic] draughts may be given, to destroy those worms which may have been engendered by the bad digestions of crude herbs.  M. de Garsault+ recommends this practice, the utility of which he had often experienced.  It is, however, an established fact, that the stomachs of horses, at all ages, and in all circumstances, whether they feed upon grass, or upon oats and hay, are perpetually stuffed with a prodigious multitude of worms.3  The stomach of the ass is always in the same condition; and yet none of these animals are incommoded by this species of vermin.  These worms, therefore, ought not to be regarded as an accidental malady, occasioned by the indigestion of crude herbs, abut rather as an effect depending on the common food and ordinary digestion of the horse and ass.

 

            After young colts are weaned, they should not be put into too warm a stable, otherwise they will be rendered too delicate and too sensible to the impressions of the air.  They should [315] be often supplied with fresh litter, and kept clean by frequent friction.  But they ought neither to be tied nor handled till they are near three years of age.  The manger and rack should not be too high; for the necessity of stretching their neck and raising their head, may induce a habit of keeping them in that position, which would spoil their neck.  When 12 or 18 months old, their tails should be cut; the hair will shoot afterwards, and become stronger and thicker.  At the age of two years, the male colts should be put with the horses, and the females with the mares.  Without this precaution, the young males would fatigue and enervate themselves.

 

            At the age of three years, or three and a half, we should begin to dress the colts, and to render them tractable.  At first, a light easy saddle should be placed on them, and allowed to remain two or three hours each day.  They should likewise be accustomed to receive a snaffle into their mouths, and to allow their feet to be lifted and struck, in imitation of shoeing.  If destined for the coach or the draught, they ought to be harnessed as well as snaffled.  A bridle is unnecessary at first:  By means of a halter or cavesson [sic] on their nose, they may be made to trot up and down on a smooth piece of ground, with only a saddle and harness on their bodies:  And, when they turn easily, and approach, without fear, the man who holds the longe or halter, they may then be mounted and dismounted, without [316] making them walk, till they be four years old; for before this period, a horse has not strength enough to walk with a rider on his back.  But, at four years, they may be mounted, and walked or trotted at small intervals.*  When a coach-horse is accustomed to the harness, he may be yoked with a bred horse, and guided with a longe or halter passed through the bridle, till he begins to know his duty.  The coachman may next try to make him draw, with the assistance of man to push him gently behind, and even to give him some slight lashes.  All this education should be gone through, before the young horses have their diet changed; for, after being fed with grain or straw, they are more vigorous, and consequently less docile, and more difficult to+ break.3

 

            The bit and the spur have been contrived to command the obedience of horses; the bit for the direction, and the spur for the quickness of their movements.  Nature seems to have destined the mouth solely for receiving the impressions of taste and appetite.  But the mouth of the [317] horse is endowed with such an amazing sensibility, that, to this organ, in place of the eye and ear, man applies for conveying the indications of his will to this animal.  The slightest motion or pressure of the bit gives him notice, and determines his course.  This organ of sensation has no fault but that of perfection; its too great sensibility requires the most dexterous management; for the smallest abuse spoils the mouth, by rendering it insensible to the impressions of the bit.  The senses of seeing and hearing cannot be blunted in this manner:  But it is probable, that all attempts to govern horses by these organs have been found inconvenient.  Besides, the signs transmitted by the touch have a stronger effect upon animals in general, than those conveyed by the eye or ear.  The situation of a horse’s eyes, with regard to his rider or conductor, is extremely unfavourable:  And, though they be often animated and conducted by the ear, it appears that the use of this organ is abandoned to the coarser species of horses; for, in the ménage, they are seldom addressed by the ear.  In a word, when horses are well educated, the smallest pressure of the thighs, the slightest movement of the bit, are sufficient to direct them.  Even the spur is almost useless, being seldom employed but to force them to exert violent motions:  And when, from the ignorance of the horseman, he gives the spur, and at the same time retracts the bridle, the horse, finding himself incited on [318] one side and restrained on the other, is obliged to rear, or make a perpendicular bound.

 

            By means of the bridle, the horse is taught to keep his head in the most beautiful and advantageous situation, and the smallest sign or slightest movement of the rider is sufficient to make the animal assume its different paces.  The trot is perhaps the most natural motion of a horse; but the pace, and even the gallop, are most easy to the rider; and these are the two motions which are most in request.  When a horse lifts his fore-leg in order to walk, this movement must be made with steadiness and facility, and the knee must likewise be bended.  The lifted leg must appear, for a moment, to be supported, and when let down, it must be firm, and equally supported on the ground, before the head receive any impression from this movement; for, when the leg falls suddenly down, and the head sinks at the same time, this motion is generally made to give a speedy relief to the other leg, which is not strong enough alone to support the whole weight of the body.  This is a very great defect in a horse.  It is also worthy of remark, that, when he rests on his heels, it is a sign of weakness;* and when he supports himself on his toes, it is an unnatural and fatiguing attitude, which the horse cannot long continue.  [319]

 

            Walking, though the slowest of all motions, ought to be brisk, light, and neither too long nor too short. Lightness depends much on the freedom of the shoulders, and is distinguished by the manner in which the horse, in walking, carries his head.  If he carries his head high and steady, he is generally vigorous and light.  When the movement of the shoulders is not sufficiently free, the limbs are not lifted high enough, and the horse is apt to stumble upon the road.  In walking, a horse should raise his shoulders, and lower his haunches.*  He should also ele- [320] vate and support his leg; but, if he supports it too long, and allows it to fall down slowly, he [321] loses every advantage of lightness; his walk becomes hard, and he is good for nothing but state and parade.  [322] [PLATE XI GOES HERE]

 

            But lightness is not the only good quality in the movements of the horse:  They should likewise be equal and uniform both before and behind:  For, if the crupper vibrates when the shoulders are supported, his motion will be jolting and incommodious to the rider.  The same thing happens, when the horse lengthens so much the step of the hind-leg, that the foot lights beyond the print of the fore-foot.  Horses with short bodies are subject to this fault.  Those whose legs cross each other, or hew, have an unsteady motion; and, in general, long-bodied horses are most commodious to the rider, because he is placed at a greater distance from the two centres of motion, the shoulders and haunches, and is of course less jolted.  [323]

 

            The general mode of walking among quadrupeds is to lift, at one time, a fore-leg and a hind-leg of opposite sides.  As their bodies rest on four points which form an oblong square, the most commodious manner of moving is to change two at a time in the diagonal; so that the centre of gravity of the animal’s body may always remain nearly in the direction of the two points of support which are not in motion.  In the three natural movements of the horse, namely, the walk, the trot, and the gallop, this mode is always observed, though with some variations.  In walking there are four beats or times of moving:  If the right fore-leg moves first, the left hind-leg instantly follows; then the left fore-leg moves, and is instantly followed by the right hind-leg.  Thus the right fore-foot rests first on the ground, then the left hind-foot, next the left fore-foot, and, lastly, the right hind-foot, which makes a motion consisting of four beats and three intervals, of which the first and third are shorter than the middle one.  In the trot, there are only two beats:  If the right fore-leg parts from the ground, it is accompanied, at the same time, by the left hind-leg; then the left fore-leg moves at the same time with the right hind-leg; so that, in this motion, there are but two beats and one interval; the right fore-leg and the left hind-leg rests on the ground at the same time, and the same thing happens with regard to the left fore-leg and the right hind-leg. In the gallop, [324] there are commonly three beats:  The left hind-leg moves first and rests first on the ground; then the right hind-leg is raised along with the left fore-leg, and both rest on the ground at the same time; and, lastly, the right fore-leg is raised instantly after the left fore-leg and the right hind-leg, and falls last upon the ground.  Thus in the gallop, there are three beats and two intervals:  In the first interval, when the motion is quick, the four legs, for an instant, are in the air at the same time, and the four shoes appear at once. When the horse has supple limbs and haunches, and moves with agility, the gallop is most perfect, and the feet fall right hind-leg, next the left fore-leg, and, lastly, the right fore-leg.

 

            Horses generally gallop upon the right foot, in the same manner as they set out in walking or trotting, with the right fore-leg.  In galloping, they first cut the road with the right fore-leg, which is farther advanced that the left; and the right hind-leg, which immediately follows the right fore-leg, is likewise farther advanced than the left hind-leg.  Hence the left leg, which bears the whole weight, and pushes the others forward, has the greatest fatigue; so that it would be proper to learn horses to gallop alternately upon the left and right legs; because it would enable them to continue this violent motion much longer.  This is practiced at the [325] menage [sic], but perhaps for no other reason, but because, in galloping round a circle, the centre of which is sometimes on the right, and sometimes on the left, the rider is frequently obliged to change his hand.

 

            In walking, the horse raises his feet very little above the surface; in trotting, he elevates them a little more, and, in galloping, still higher.  The walk ought to be smart, light, and sure; the trot should be firm, quick, and equally supported, and the fore-legs pushed with rapidity by the hind ones.  The trotting horse should carry his head pretty high, and keep his body straight; for, if the haunches rise and fall alternately at every movement, and if the crupper rocks, the animal is too weak for this motion.  To throw the fore-legs out, is another fault:  They ought always to be on the same line with those behind, and to efface their prints.*  When one of the hind-legs moves, and if the fore-leg on the same side rests too long, the movement becomes hard by this resistance.  It is for this reason, that the interval between the two beats of the trot ought to be short: But, however short it may be, this resistance is sufficient to make the trot harder than the walk or gallop.   [326]

 

            The spring of the hocks contributes as much to the motions of galloping as that of the loins.  While the latter make an effort to elevate and push forward the anterior parts, the spring of the hocks breaks the stroke and softens the shock.  Hence the more uniform and strong the spring of the hocks, the gallop is softer and more rapid.

 

            Though walking, trotting, and galloping be the natural and ordinary movements of horses, yet some of them have another natural motion, known by the name of ambling, or pacing, which is very different from the other three; and, though less quick than the hard trot or gallop, it appear, at first sight, to be extremely fatiguing to the animal. The foot of the horse, in this movement, grazes the surface still nearer than in walking, and each step is much longer. But, what is singular, to make a pace, the two legs of the same side part from the ground at the same time, the fore and hind leg, for example on the right side, and then the two legs of the left side; so that each side of the body alternately want support, which must greatly fatigue the animal, who is obliged to support a balance forced by the rapidity of a movement which is hardly elevated above the ground; for nothing but the rapidity of the motion, and the smallness of the elevation, could possibly prevent the creature from falling on his side.  In the motion of pacing, as in that of trotting, there are [327] only two beats.  This movement, which is very laborious to the horse, and in which he ought not to be indulged excepting on smooth ground, is very easy to the rider; it has not the hardness of the trot, because the hind leg moves along with the fore one, and creates no resistance to the motion.  We are told by connoisseurs, that horses which naturally amble, never trot, and that they are much weaker than those that have no such movement.  Colts, indeed, often assume this mode of moving, when forced to go quick, and when they have not strength enough to trot or to gallop; and even good horses, after being fatigued, or when they begin to decay, are apt, when pushed, to amble spontaneously.*

 

            The amble may therefore be regarded as a motion occasioned by weakness or defect.  But there are two other movements assumed spontaneously by weak or decayed horses, which are still more defective than that of the amble, and are known by the name of Broken ambles.  The one is a motion between walking and ambling, and the other between trotting and galloping.  Both proceed from great fatigue, or weakness in the loins, and are conspicuous in many of our hackney and post-horses.

 

            Of all quadrupeds, the horse possesses, along with grandeur of stature, the greatest elegance and proportion of parts.  By comparing him with the animals immediately above or below [328] him, we find that the ass is ill made; that the head of the lion is too large; that the limbs of the ox are too slender and too short, in proportion to the size of his body; that the camel is deformed; and that the grosser animals, as the rhinoceros and elephant, may be considered as rude and shapeless masses.  The great difference between the head of man that of the quadrupeds, consists in the length of their jaws, which is the most ignoble of all characters.  But, though the jaws of the horse be very long, he has not, like the ass, an air of imbecility, nor, like the ox, of stupidity.  The regularity and proportion of the parts of his head give him a light and sprightly aspect, which is well supported by the beauty of his chest.  He elevates his head, as if anxious to exalt himself above the condition of quadrupeds.  In this noble attitude, he regards man face to face.  His eyes are open and lively, his ears handsome and of a proper height, being neither too long, like those of the ass, nor too short, like those of the bull.  His mane adorns his neck, and gives him the appearance of strength and courage.  His long bushy tail covers and terminates with advantage the extremity of his body.  His tail, very different from the short tails of the deer, elephant, &c. and from the naked tails of the ass, camel, rhinoceros, &c. is formed of long thick hairs which seem to arise from his crupper, because the trunk from which they proceed is very short.  [329]  He cannot, like the lion, elevate his tail, but, though pendulous, it becomes him better:  And, as he can move it from side to side, it serves him to drive off the flies which incommode him; for, though his skin be very firm, and well garnished with close hair, it fails not to be extremely sensible.

 

            The attitude of the head and neck contributes more than all the other parts of his body, to give him a graceful aspect.  The superior part of the neck from which the mane issues, should first rise in a straight line from the withers, and then, as it approaches the head, form a curve nearly similar to that of a swan’s neck.  The inferior part of the neck should have no curvature, but rise in a straight line from the poitrel [sic], or breast, to the under jaw, with a small inclination forward.  If it rose in a perpendicular direction, its symmetry and gracefulness would be diminished.  The superior part of the neck should be thin, with little flesh near the mane, which ought to be garnished with long delicate hair.  A fine neck should be long and elevated, but proportioned to the general size of the animal.  When too long, the horse commonly throws back his head; and, when too short and fleshy, the head is heavy to the hand.  The most advantageous position of the head is, when the front is perpendicular to the horizon.

 

            The head of a horse should be think and meagre, and not too long.  The ears should be [330] small, erect, but not too stiff, narrow, and placed on the upper part of the head, at a proper distance from each other.  The front should be narrow and a little convex, the eye-pits, or spaces between the eyes and ears, well filled, and the eye-lids thin; the eyes should be pretty large and prominent, clear, lively, and full of fire; the pupil should be rather large, the under jaw a little thick, but not fleshy, the nose somewhat arched, the nostrils open and deep, and divided by a thin septum or partition.  The mouth should be delicate and moderately split, lips thin, the withers sharp and elevated, the shoulders flat, and not confined; the back equal, a little arched lengthways, and raised on each side of the back-bone, which ought to have the appearance of being sunk; the flanks should be short and full, the crupper round and plump, the haunches well furnished with muscular flesh, the dock or fleshy part of the tail firm and thick, the thighs large and fleshy, the hock round before, broad on the sides, and tendinous [sic] behind; the shank thin before, and broad on the sides; the tendon, (or tendo Achillis) prominent, strong, and well detached from the leg-bone, and the fetlock somewhat prominent, and garnished with a small tuft of long hair behind; the patterns should be of a middling length, and pretty large; the coronet a little elevated, the hoof black, solid, and shining, the instep high, the quarters round, the heels broad, and a little prominent, [331] frog thin and small, and the sole thick and concave.

 

            Few horses possess all these perfections.  The eyes are subject to many faults, which it is often difficult to distinguish.  In a sound eye, two or three soot-coloured spots appear through the cornea above the pupil; for, unless the cornea be clean and transparent, these spots cannot be seen. When the pupil is small, long, and narrow, or surrounded with a white circle, or when it is of a greenish blue colour, the eye is unquestionably bad.*

 

            Without entering into a long detail, the following general remarks will enable the reader to form a judgment of the principal perfections and imperfections of a horse.  The motion of the ears affords a tolerable criterion: When a horse walks, the point of his ears should incline forwards; when fatigued, his ears hang down; and, when angry, or of a malignant disposition, he points alternately one of his ears forwards, and another backwards.  Every horse turns his ears to that side from which he hears any noise; and, when struck on the back or on the crupper, he turns his ears backward.  Horses with hollow eyes, or with one eye smaller than the other, have generally a bad sight.  Those whose mouths are dry, have not such good constitutions [332] as those that have moist mouths, and foam with the bit.*  The shoulders of a saddle-horse should be flat, supple, and not too fleshy.  A draught-horse, on the contrary, ought to have thick, round, fleshy shoulders.  If, however, the shoulders of a saddle-horse be too meagre, and the bones advance too much through the skin, it is an indication that his shoulders are not free, and that, of course, he will be unable to undergo much fatigue.  Another defect of a saddle-horse is to have the poitrel, or breast, too prominent, and the fore-legs inclined or placed too far backward; because, in this case, he is subject to lean heavy upon the hand in galloping, and even to stumble and fall.  The length of the legs should be proportioned to the stature of the horse.  When the fore-legs are too long, he is not steady on his feet; and, when too short, he bears heavy on the hand.  It has been remarked, that mares are more liable than horses to be low before, and that stone-horses have thicker necks than mares or geldings.

 

            It is of great importance to know the age of a horse. The eye-pits of old horses are commonly hollow:  But this mark is equivocal; for young horses begot by old stallions have likewise hollow eye-pits.  The teeth afford the best criterion of the age of horses.  The horse has, in all, 40 teeth, viz. 24 grinders, 4 canine, or tushes [sic], and [333] 12 fore-teeth.  Mares have either no dog-teeth, or very short ones.  The canine and fore-teeth only afford indications of the age.  Five days after birth, the fore-teeth begin to shoot.  These first teeth are round, short, and not very solid; and they fall out, at different times, to be replaced by others.  At two years and a half, the four middle fore-teeth fall out, two above and two below.  The next year, other four are shed, one on each side of the first, which are now replaced.  At four years and a half, other four fall out, always on each side of those that were formerly shed and replaced.  These last four foal-teeth are succeeded by other four, which grow not near so quickly as the first eight.  It is from these four, called corner teeth, that the age of a horse is distinguished; and they are easily known, being always the third, both above and below, reckoning from the middle to the extremity of the jaw.  They are hollow, and have a black mark in their cavities.  At four and a half, or five years, these teeth hardly rise above the gums, and their cavities begin to fill up, and the mark gradually diminishes till the animal is seven and a half, or eight years, when the cavities are perfectly filled, and the mark totally effaced.  After this period, the age is attempted to be discovered by the tushes or canine teeth.  These four teeth lie immediately adjacent to the other four [334] above described.  Neither the tushes nor grinders shed.  At the age of three years and a half, the two tushes of the under jaw generally begin to shoot; the two of the upper jaw appear at the age of four, and, till six years be completed, they are very sharp.  At ten years, the tushes of the upper jaw seem to be blunted, worn out, and long, because the gums retract with age; and the more this appearance takes place, the older is the horse.  From ten to thirteen or fourteen years, there are hardly any marks by which the age may be discovered.  Some hairs of the eye-brows, indeed, begin to grow white; but this mark is equally equivocal as that derived from the depth of the eye-pits; for, it has been remarked, that horses begot by old stallions and old mares, have white hairs in the eye-brows at the age of nine or ten.  The teeth of some horses are so hard, that they wear not by eating, and never lose the black mark.  But these horses are easily known, because the cavities of their teeth are perfectly filled up, and their tushes are very long.*  The age of a horse may likewise be known, though with less precision, by the bars or ridges of the palate, which are effaced in proportion as he advances in years.

 

            At the age of two years, or two and a half, the horse is in a condition to propagate; and the mares, like most other females, are still sooner ripe for this operation.  But the foals produced from such early embraces, are weakly, [335] or ill-formed.  The horse should never be admitted to the mare till he is four or four and a half; and even this period is too early, excepting for coarse or draught-horses.  When fine horses are wanted, the male should not be admitted to the mare before he is six years old; and Spanish stallions not till they be full seven.  The mare may be one year younger:  They generally come in season from the end of March to the end of June.  But their chief ardour for the horse lasts not above 15 days or three weeks; and, during this critical period, the mare should be admitted to the stallion:  He ought to be sound, vigorous, well-made, and of a good breed.  To procure fine saddle-horses, foreign stallions, as Arabians, Turks, Barbs, and Andalousians, are preferable to all others.  Next to these, British stallions are best; because they originally sprung from those above mentioned, and are very little degenerated.  Italian stallions, especially those of Naples, are extremely good.  With mares of a proper size, they produce excellent horses for the saddle; and, with strong large mares, they produce good coach-horses.  It is alledged, that, in France, Britain, &c. the Arabian and Barbary stallions generally beget horses larger than themselves; and that those of Spain, on the contrary produce a breed more diminutive.  The best stallions for coach-horses are those of Naples, Denmark, Holstein, and Friesland.  The stallions for saddle-horses should be* [336] four feet eight or ten inches, and five feet,+ at least, for coach horses.  Neither ought the colour of stallions be overlooked, as a fine black, gray, bay, sorrel, &c.  All party-coloured, or ill defined colours, ought to be banished from the stud, as well as every horse which has white extremities.  Besides these external qualities, a stallion should be endowed with courage, tractability, and spirit; he should have agility, a sensible mouth, and sure limbs, his shoulders should be perfectly free, and his haunches supple; he should have a spring and elasticity in his whole body, especially in his hind legs; and he ought to be trained and dressed in the riding-school.  These precautions in the choice of a stallion are the more necessary, because it has been found by experience, that he communicates to his offspring almost all his good or bad qualities, whether natural or acquired.  A horse naturally cross, skittish, restive, &c. produces foals of the same dispositions:  And, as the defects of conformation and the vices of the humours are more certainly perpetuated than the qualities of the temper, one should reject from the stud every horse that is deformed or diseased, extremely vicious, glandered, broken-winded, frantic, &c.

 

            In our climate, the mare contributes less to the beauty of her offspring than the stallion; but she contributes more, perhaps, to their stature and constitution.  It is, therefore, of great im- [337] portance, that mares for breed be sound, tall, large, and roomy in the trunk of the body, and good nurses.  For elegant horses, Spanish and Italian mares are best; but, for draught-horses, those of Britain and Normandy are preferable.  However, when the stallions are good, fine horses may be produced from mares of any country, provided they be well made and of a good breed; for, if the mares have sprung from a bad stallion, their offspring are generally defective.  In horses, as in the human species, the young very frequently resemble either their male or female predecessors; only, it would appear, that, among the horse-kind, the female contributes less to the work of generation than in the human species.  The son more frequently resembles his mother than the foal does the mare from which he is produced; and, when the foal happens to resemble his mother, the likeness is generally confined to the anterior parts of the body, as the head and neck.

 

            To judge of the resemblance of children to their parents, the comparison ought not to be made till after the age of puberty.  For, at this period, so many changes take place, that a person, with whom we were formerly familiar, we will hardly, at first sight, be able to distinguish.  In the human species, the son, after puberty, often resembles the father, and the daughter the mother, and, not unfrequently [sic], each retains a partial likeness to both parent; and this family- [338] likeness is generally recognizable in uncles, aunts, and in every ascending or descending branch.  Among horses, as the male contributes more to the offspring than the female, mares very frequently produce foals which have a great resemblance to the stallion, or which always resemble the father more than the mother.  And, even when the mare has been begot by a bad horse, it often happens, that, though served by a good stallion, and though handsome herself, her offspring, though beautiful and well made at first, gradually decline as they grow up; and other mares, sprung from a good race, produce foals, which, though they have an unpromising aspect when young, improve as they advance in years.

 

            These facts, though they seem to concur in proving that the males have greater influence on the offspring than the females, appear not to be sufficient to render this point altogether unquestionable.  It is by no means surprising, that stallions, which are always selected from a great number, generally imported from a warm climate, and fed and managed with the greatest business of generation, over common mares, bred in a cold country, and often subjected to hard labour.  If mares were selected from warm climates, managed with equal attention, and served with the common stallions of our own country, I have not the smallest doubt, that, in this [339] case, the superiority of the females would be equally apparent as that of the males; and, in general, that, among horses, as well as the human species, the influence of both parents, when placed in equal circumstances, is nearly the same.  What renders this opinion both more natural and more probable, is the well known fact, that, in studs, the number of females produced is equal to that of the males; which is a clear proof, that, with regard to sex at least, the female contributes her full proportion.

 

            But, to return to our subject.  When the stallion is chosen, and the mares are assembled, another stone-horse should be allowed to teaze [sic] them, for no other purpose but to discover those which are in season.  Those that are not in proper condition repel his attacks.  But, instead of allowing him to proceed with the mares which are in season, he is led off, and the true stallion is substituted in his place.  This trial is chiefly useful for discovering the condition of such mares as have never produced; for those which have produced are commonly in season nine days after their delivery, and may be safely covered on the tenth day.  Nine days after, their condition may be tried by the above proof, and, if still in season, they should be covered a second time, and so on every ninth day, till their ardour abates, which happens a few days after conception.  But, to conduct this matter properly, requires considerable attention and expence.  The [340] stud should be established on good ground, and its dimensions proportioned to the quantity of mares and stallions employed.  This ground should be divided into several apartments, and well fenced with ditches or hedges.  The impregnated mares, and those which are suckling their young, should have the richest pasture.  Another enclosure, where the grass is less rich, should contain the uncovered mares, those that have not conceived, and the female foals; for a rich pasture makes them grow too fat, and weakens the generative faculty.  Lastly, the young male foals and geldings should be confined to the driest and most unequal part of the ground, that, by ascending and descending the eminences, they may acquire a freedom in their limbs and shoulders.  This last enclosure should be well fenced from that which contains the mares, to prevent the young horses from enervating themselves by premature efforts.  If the field be sufficiently extensive, each of these enclosures should be divided into two, and grazed alternately by horses and oxen.  This mode of grazing improves the pasture; for the ox repairs what is injured by the horse.  Each park should likewise be furnished with a pond, which is better than a running water, and also with trees to shelter the animals from too much heat; but, to prevent accidents, all old stumps should be rooted out, and deep holes filled up. These pastures will afford sufficient nourishment to the stud du- [341] ring the summer; but, in winter, the mares and foals should be put into stables, and fed with hay, excepting in very fine weather, when they may be set out to pasture during the day.  The stallions should be always kept in the stables, fed with a greater proportion of straw than of hay, and moderately exercised till the time of covering, which generally lasts from the beginning of April till the end of June.  During this period, they should be fed plentifully, but with nothing more than their ordinary food.

 

            When the stallion is conducted to the mare, to augment his ardour, he should be well dressed.  The mare should have the shoes taken off her hind feet; for some of them are apt to kick at the approach of the stallion.  One man holds the mare by the head, and two others lead the stallion by long reins.  When in a proper situation, he should be assisted by the hand, and by turning aside the tail of the mare; for the opposition of a single hair might would him in a dangerous manner.  The stallion sometimes quits the mare without consummating.  If the trunk of his tail near the crupper vibrates before he descends, we may be certain that he has consummated; for this motion always accompanies emission.  After consummation, the act should not be reiterated; but he ought to be carried back immediately to the stable, there to remain two days:  For, though a horse might be able to cover every day during the season; yet, if only [342] admitted once in two days, he is both more vigorous and more successful.  During the first seven days, therefore, let him have four different mares, and, on the ninth, let him again cover the first mare, and so on as long as they continue in season.  When one of the mares ceases to be ardent, another should be substituted in her place; and, as many are impregnated at the first, second, or third time, a stallion, managed in this manner, may cover 15 or 18 mares, and produce 10 or 12 foals, during the three months that these amours continue.  Stallions throw out a vast profusion of seminal fluid; mares likewise emit, or rather distill, a fluid during the time they are in season; and, as soon as they are pregnant, these emissions cease.  This fluid was called Hippomanes by the Greeks; and of it they are said to have made love-potions, which rendered horses, in particular, frantic with desire.  The Hippomanes is totally different from the fluid found in the membranes that cover the foal, which was first discovered and described by M. Daubenton.*  The appearance of the hippomanes is the most certain mark of ardour in mares, who, at this period, have a strong desire of approaching the horse.  After a mare has been covered, she may be led to the pasture [343] without any other precaution.  The first foal is always more puny than the subsequent ones:  To compensate this defect, a mare should be served, for the first time, with a large stallion.  The differences in the figures of the horse and mare should be attended to, in order to correct the faults of the one by the perfections of the other; and no disproportioned conjunctions ought to be admitted, as of a small horse and a large mare, or of a large horse and a small mare; for the produce of such conjunctions will either be small or ill-proportioned.  In order to improve nature, we must advance by gradual steps:  A plump, but handsome horse, for example, may be admitted to a mare that is too gross, a small mare to a horse a little taller, a mare with a bad fore-hand to a horse with a fine head, neck, &c.

 

            It has been remarked, that studs kept in dry light soils produce active, nimble, and vigorous horses, with nervous limbs and strong hoofs; while those kept in moist ground, and in too rich pasturage, have generally large heavy heads, gross bodies, thick legs, bad hoofs, and broad feet.  It is easy to perceive that these differences proceed from the varieties in climate and food.  But the necessity of crossing the breed, to prevent the degeneration of horses, is more difficult to understand, and of more importance to be known.

 

[Click here to continue to part 2]

[Click here to skip to part 3]

Notes

 

*  Equus caballus, cauda undique fetosa; Linn. Sys. Nat. p. 100.

Horse—hoof consisting of one piece; six cutting teeth in each jaw; Pennant, Synops. of quadrup. p. 1 [back to page 306].

 

*  Aldrovand. de quadrup. soliped. Lib. I. p. 19.

+  See la descript. des isles de l’Archipel. 50.

3.  Voyages de Struys, tom. I. p. 11.

4.  Descript. Africae, part 2. vol. 2. p. 750.

5.  L’Afrique de Marmol. tom. I. p. 50

6.  Lettres Edifiantes, recueil 26. p. 371 [back to page 310].

 

*  See les dernieris decouvertes dans l’Amer. Septen. De M. de Salle, p. 250.

+  L’Hist. des avantur. flibustiers, tom. I. p. 110 [back to page 311].

 

*  M. Garsault mentions another method of taming wild horses.  “When the colts,” he observes, “are not very early tamed, it sometimes happens that the approach of man strikes them with terror; that they defend themselves with their heels and teeth, in such a manner, that it is almost impossible to dress or shoe them:  if not broke by gentleness and patience, they are prevented from sleeping till they fall down with weakness.  During this operation, a man continues, day and night, at their heads, giving them, from [312] time to time, handfuls of hay.  When treated in this manner, it is astonishing how soon their tempers are softened.  Some horses, however, require to be kept awake for eight days.”  See Nouveau parfait Maréchal, p. 89 [this note straddles two pages, with break occurring where indicated above.  Back to page 311].

 

*  This may be the practice in France; but, in Britain, horses, of all ages, are allowed to pasture freely in summer, without receiving any injury [Smellie's note].

+  Nouveau parfait Maréchal, p. 84.

3.  This assertion appears to be too general; for, in this country, at least, worms are by no means so frequent [Smellie’s note.  Back to page 315]. 

 

*  See Elemens de cavalerie de M. de la Gueriniere, tom. 1. p. 140.

+  Le nouveau parfait Maréchal, par M. de Garsault, p. 86.

3.  By this management, it is admitted, that horses may be easier broke.  But, after they are allowed a full and generous diet, they are apt to become vitious [sic] and unruly.  For this reason, connoisseurs in horsemanship maintain, that, to break horses when they are in the highest order and best fed, is by much the most preferable mode  [back to page 317].

 

*  The only sure mark of strength and soundness in a horse, is when he rests firmly upon his foot, without favouring any particular part of it [back to page 319].

 

*  It may be of use to introduce here an explanation of the technical terms generally employed to express the different external parts of a horse. See the plate of the horse.

 

A  The two bones corresponding to the temples of man, and called by the same name.

B  The eye pits, or two cavities between the eye and ear, above the eye brows.

C  The vives.  The parotid glands, situated between the ear, and the locking of the under jaw.

D  The face or chanfrin.  The fore part of the head from the eyes to the nostril. 

E The rim of the nostrils.  The cartilage which forms the circular aperture of the nostrils, and terminates them above and below.

Tip of the nose.  The partition which divides the nostrils, terminating at the upper lip.

G to H  The bones of the lower jaw.

H  The chin

I  The beard.

            Gatherers. The two fore teeth

            Middle teeth.  Those adjoining to the gatherers.

            Corner teeth.  The last on each side. [320]

            Tushes.  The two canine teeth on each side, and in each jaw.

            Bars.  The spaces between the cutting teeth and grinders, filled with ridges, which run across the palate.

K  The Neck, which is bounded above by the mane, and below by the throat, extending from the shoulders to the head.

L  The Tuft or Toupet.  That part of the mane which lies between the two ears, and hangs down on the front.

M.  The Withers.  The place where the two shoulders approach each other between the neck and back.

N.  The Shoulders, extending from the withers M, to the top of the fore-hand, or fore leg O.

P  The Chest or breast.

Q  The Back, reaching from the withers M, to the reins S.

R  The Navel.  The part between the back and reins, a very absurd term, as the navel is the lower part of the belly.

S  The Reins.  This term is often used, though improperly, to express the whole spine of the horse.

T  The Sides, which are formed and limited by the ribs.

V  The Coffer.  The hollow formed by the contour of the ribs.  The name of Belly is given to the part extending from V to the flank.

X  The Flanks.  The extremity of the belly, at the termination of the ribs, below the kidneys, and reaching to the haunch-bones.

Y  The Haunch, formed, as in man, by the haunch-bone.

Z  The Crupper, which is round, and reaches from the kidneys to the tail.

            The Tail is distinguished by two parts, the hair and the rump.

a  The Buttocks, are situated below the crupper and the origin of the tail, and extend to the place where the hind leg joins the body.

b  The Shoulder-bladec. The humerus [sic].  Both of these are included by horsemen under the name Shoulders.

d  The Elbow.

e  The Arm. [page 321]

f  The Knee, or joint situated below the arm, a term improperly applied to a horse, as it corresponds to the wrist in man.

g  The Shank or canon.  The second part of the fore-leg.  It begins at the articulation of the knee, terminates at the fetlock joint i, and answers to the metacarpus in man.

h  The Tendon, commonly called the back-sinew.

i  The Fetlock joint.

k  The Tuft of hair which surrounds a kind of soft horn situated behind the shank.

l  The Pasterns.  That part of the leg which extends from the fetlock-joint to the hoof.

m  The Coronet.  The place where the hoof joins the leg, and is decorated with long hair, falling down all around the hoof.

n  The Hoof represents the nail in man; the fore-part of it n is called the Toe, and the sides o the Quarters. The hind part of the hoof is a little raised, and divided into two parts, both included under the name Heel:  They extend to the middle of the under part of the foot, and uniting again under the sole, or bottom of the foot, form the Frog.

p  The Stiffle, is properly the articulation of the knee, and contains the knee-pan.

q  The Thigh.  It extends from the stifle and extremity of the buttocks to the ham r, and answers to the leg in man.  Accordingly, the horse’s thigh has a fleshy part s, resembling the calf of a human leg.

t  The Hock or ham, is the joint at the extremity of the thigh, and bends forwards.  This articulation corresponds with the Tarsus in man.  The hinder part of the joint called the hock, is properly the Heel.  What is commonly called the great sinew, which arises from the point of the hock, and terminates in the foot, is a tendon, answering to the tendo Achillis inserted into the human heel.

u  The Shank.                                                                            

x  The Pastern-joint. [322]

y  The Pasterns.

z  The Foot, as in the fore-leg.

 

            This explanation of the particular terms, will render the general ones more easy and simple.  A horse is divided into three principal parts, the fore-hand, the body or carcase, and the hind-hand.  The fore-hand includes the head, neck, withers, breast, and fore-legs.  The body is composed of the back, kidneys, ribs, belly, and flanks.  The hind-hand comprehends the rump, haunches, tail, buttocks, stifle, thighs, hocks, and the other parts of the hind legs. 

 

            By another mode of division, the horse is distinguished into four parts, the head, the body, and the fore and hind trains.  The body is composed of the back, the kidneys, the belly, the ribs, and the flanks.  The fore-train consists of the neck, the shoulders, the breast, and the fore-legs; and the hind-train, of the rump, the tail, the haunches, and the hind-legs [323]  [this long note straddles three separate pages, with the illustration of the horse occurring between pages 322 and 323.  Back to page 320].

 

*  Here the author differs from all our expert horsemen, who uniformly prefer those horses which go wider behind than before; because horses of this kind are not so apt to cut their legs, are more agile in their movements, and can support greater fatigue in long journies, &c [Smellie’s note.  Back to page 326]. 

 

*  See l’Ecole de cavalier de M. de la Gueriniere, p. 77 [back to page 328].

 

*  There are many other marks of bad eyes; but, as their colour depends much on the light in which they are viewed, little information can be derived from it [back to page 332].

 

*  A dry or wet mouth is a consequence of the particular state of the body at the time; and, therefore, can be no indication of the general constitution or strength of a horse [Smellie’s note.  Back to page 333].

 

*  See l’Ecole de cavalerie, de M. de la Gueriniere, p. 25 [back to page 335].

 

*  Fourteen hands and a half [back to page 336].

 

+  Fifteen hands [Note:  this is the only note appearing on this page, but the printer used the “plus” sign here, which was normally used to denote the second note on a page.  Back to page 337].

 

*  Mem. de l’acad. des sciences, année 1751 [back to page 343].